Inulin-Type Fructans in Poultry Feed_Crimson Publishers

Inulin-Type Fructans in Poultry Feed by Fu Youli in Approaches in Poultry, Dairy & Veterinary Sciences_The Journal of Poultry Science

Introduction

Fructans exist as a wide range of oligo- and polysaccharides in many species of bacteria, fungi, and plants [1]. They are classified into different families on the basis of their glycosidic linkages, consisting of (2→1)-linked β-D-fructofuranosyl units such as inulin, or (2→6)-linked β-D-fructofuranosyl units such as levans, or highly branched structures comprised of both (2→1)- and (2→6)-linked β-D-fructofuranosyl units such as graminans [2,3]. Among which, inulin-type fructans are perhaps by far the most widespread and researched current prebiotics.

The European Union has banned all in-feed use of antibiotics from 2006 and the use of antibiotics in feed is gradually reduced (or intense regulation) in other parts of the world. This perspective has stimulated nutritionists and feed manufacturers to search for new, safer alternatives. The primary alternatives studied include acidification of the feed by organic acids, feeding probiotic organisms and feeding prebiotic compounds.

In the 1980s, the possible potential effects of prebiotics in animal feeds was already recognized. Since then, the interest in the use of prebiotics in animal feeds has resulted in extensive research [4].

Unlike other carbohydrates, the inulin-type fructans are indigestible to mammalian enzymes [5], but may be fermented to produce lactic acid [6]. The non-digestible inulin-type fructans are found widely in many vegetable feed and food ingredients and are perhaps the best studied and documented prebiotics in domesticated animals [7].

At hatching, the gastrointestinal tract of broilers is sterile. Immediately, bacteria originating from the mother, the environment or the diet will colonise in the gastrointestinal tract. In case of mother contacts, a diverse microbial population will enter the gastrointestinal tract. As a result, after the first colonisation, bacterial species coming later in time will have greater difficulty colonising (colonisation resistance) than the initial population. Because of the strict separation of generations in broiler chickens, any bacteria from the environment might colonise (e.g. attach to intestinal binding sites or multiply faster than being removed via chyme passage) the intestinal tract. Those feed components that are resistant to enzymatic degradation, such as inulin-type fructans, serve as a substrate for bacterial activity in the intestinal lumen. The interaction between host nutrition and the intestinal microbiota has been clearly illustrated using germ-free animals. Langhout (1998) clearly showed the importance of controlling the activity of the intestinal microbiota to support gut integrity and to avoid

(i) bacterial overgrowth,

(ii) (ii) reduced nutrient digestibility and

(iii) (iii) reduced production performance [8].

Feeding inulin-type fructans may be a practical strategy for controlling pathogenic bacteria in chickens. Researchers summarised several experiments in which different types of fructans were fed to broilers alone or in combination with a probiotic to evaluate the effect on colonisation of pathogens (i.e. Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter jejuni) in caeca and on prechilled poultry carcasses [7,9-13]. Researchers concluded that supplementation of inulin-type fructans in combination with competitive exclusion flora may reduce colonisation by the pathogenic bacteria.

In order to effectively supplement inulin-type fructans in animal feed, additional research is also needed to elucidate the mode of action and the relationship between gut microflora, gut and animal health, and performance. Molecular DNA techniques might be helpful in research to gain further insight into the changes occurring in the composition of the gut microflora and the gene expression in gut tissue and relevant organs.

References

1. Andrew JC, Paul B, Ian MS (2002) The structure of starch from seeds and leaves of the fructan-accumulating ryegrass, Lolium temulentum L. J Plant Physiol 159(3): 221-230.

2. Praznik W, Spies T (1993) Fructo-oligosaccharides from Urginea maritime. Carbohydr Res 243(1): 91-97.

3. Hincha DK, Zuther E, Hellwege EM, Heyer AG (2002) Specific effects of fructo- and gluco-oligosaccharides in the preservation of liposomes during drying. Glycobiol 12(2): 103-110.

4. Verdonk JMAJ, Shim SB, Leeuwen PV, Verstegen MWA (2005) Application of inulin-type fructans in animal feed and pet food. Br J Nutr 93(Suppl 1): S125-S138.

5. Nilsson U, Oste R, Jagerstad M (1988) Cereal fructans: in vitro and in vivo studies on availability in rats and humans. J Nutr 118(11):1325-1330.

6. Muller M, Steller J (1995) Comparative studies of the degradation of grass fructan and inulin by strains of Lactobacillus paracasei subsp. Paracasei and Lactobacillus plantarum. J Appl Bacteriol 78(3): 229-236.

7. Flickinger EA, Schreijen EMWC, Patil AR, Hussein HS, Grieshop CM, et al. (2003) Nutrient digestibilities, microbial populations, and protein catabolites as affected by fructan supplementation of dog diets. J Anim Sci 81(8): 2008-2018.

8. Langhout DJ (1998) The role of the intestinal flora as affected by nonstarch polysaccharides in broiler chicks. PhD Thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University.

9. Flickinger EA, Fahey GC Jr (2002) Pet food and feed applications of inulin, oligofructose and other oligosaccharides. Br J Nutr 87(Suppl 2): S297-S300.

10. Bailey JS, Blankenship LC, Cox NA (1991) Effect of fructooligosaccharide on Salmonella colonization of the chicken intestine. Poult Sci 70(12): 2433-2438.

11. Oyarzabal AA, Conner DE (1996) Application of direct-fed microbial bacteria and fructooligosaccharides for Salmonella control in broilers during feed withdrawal. Poult Sci 75(2): 186-190.

12. Chambers JR, Spencer JL, Modler HW (1997) The influence of complex carbohydrates on Salmonella typhimurium colonization, pH, and density of broiler ceca. Poult Sci 76(3): 445-451.

13. Fukata T, Sasai K, Miyamoto T, Baba E (1999) Inhibitory effects of competitive exclusion and fructooligosaccharide, singly and in combination, on Salmonella colonization of chicks. J Food Prot 62(3): 229-233.

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Systematic Inventory of the Coleopterological Population of the Rice Plants of Gharb (Morocco)_Crimson Publishers

Systematic Inventory of the Coleopterological Population of the Rice Plants of Gharb (Morocco) by Abdelaziz Maqboul in Crimson Publishers Journals

Summary

Due to favorable climatic and soil conditions, Moroccan rice cultivation is practiced in its entirety in the lowest region of the Gharb plain. The systematic study of the colopterological stand at ten stations covering all the rice fields during the two 2015 and 2016 rice seasons revealed that it is very diversified in comparison with other similar environments. Indeed, the latter has 39 species spread over 12 families, with a predominance of species described as a great power of predation and which are of vital interest against the proliferation of living species at the expense of the rice plant. Similarly, the biogeographical analysis of this entomofauna reveals the predominance of the Mediterranean character and the scarcity of other elements of various origins. This in relation with the location of the Gharb plain in an area protected from Saharan influence by the three parallel mountain ranges. Finally, the biotypological study of this colopterological stand during the two cropping seasons allowed the individualization of three groups of species during the phenological cycle of rice: species with summer development; fall-rearing species and species harvested throughout the crop cycle..

Keywords: Coleoptera; Systematics; Biotypology; Ecology; Rice fields; Gharb plain

Introduction

Rice cultivation is considered to be the world’s second largest crop in terms of area and production. Indeed, it occupies a floor area of about 160 million hectares with an estimated world production of 598 million tons of paddy per year in 2002.

In Morocco, rice cultivation is practiced exclusively in the lowest part of the Gharb plain because of the favorable climatic and soil conditions offered by this area as well as the richness of its water network [1]. Currently, the rice potential of this plain is around 4500 hectares [2].

The yield achieved in 2014 is close to 80 quintals per ha, which exceeds that recorded in the countries specialized in this agricultural production. It would even exceed the European average. “It’s the only culture where we are better off than most European countries and even the United States.”

Because of their purely carnivorous diet, the colopterological stand of rice fields in the Gharb plain (Morocco) is almost entirely of vital interest in controlling the number of organisms living at the expense of the rice plant in particular. aphids, leafhopper nymphs and stem borers, and can thus be described as useful insects in Moroccan rice fields.

The systematic study of this order of insects was carried out on the Moroccan rice fields during the 2015 and 2016 rice growing seasons accompanied by an identification of certain other species which have very close trophic links with the studied group.

Localisation de la zone d’etude (Figure 1)

figure 1:Gharb plain and the study stations location.

The Gharb plain is located in the Atlantic littoral zone between latitudes 34° and 34°45’ N. Its hydro-geographical area is 7500km2 [3]. It presents a wide range of soil. Starting from Oued Sebou, we find the Dehs, the Shots and the soils of Merjas respectively. PH slightly alkaline. The climate is Mediterranean. Very rich in water resources (Oued Sebou and its tributaries, Merjas, and groundwater).

Operation and maintenance of a rice

The ground works begin in May-April. Rice is sown within 10 days after submersion. The survey period lasts 35 to 40 days. It is only during the month of June that each foot produces many stems (Tallage). Vegetative growth continues in July (Montaison) followed by Flowering at the end of the month and Epiaison in August. It takes 170 days for the rice to reach maturity. The rice field is dry in mid- September and the harvest is usually in October. The development cycle of this crop takes place between May and October. Since this crop is totally irrigated, it consumes a lot of water. Its field consumption is estimated at 17400 m3/ha [4]. It corresponds to the compensation of evapotranspiration needs, evaporation of the water body, drainage and infiltration of water into the soil.

Methods of sampling

Sampling techniques in rice fields are similar to those recommended in shallow environments (ponds) [5-7] and generally adapted in the sampling of helioplankton at rice fields [8]. The idea is to delimit with a hollow cylinder with sharp edges (40cm diameter during the first two months of submersion in the absence of a macro-intense vegetation and 20cm diameter at the rice stage) a volume of water to collect all the fauna present in the water-sludge column.

figure 2:Importance of the main choronological categories of the colopterological stand of the Moroccan rice fields.

The samples are taken from ten stations covering the three rice areas of the Gharb plain during the 2015 and 2016 rice growing seasons (Figure 2). At each station, we made two samples at shallow depths and two others at great depth (edges of the rice field) with a frequency of two monthly readings. So we made qualitative samples using a fine meshed net.

Inventory of harvested species

After deposition of the chamber in the sediment, its water content is recovered, then filtered using a fine-mesh plankton net (0.3mm). Similarly, a slice of sediment or can house Benthic forms are removed and rinsed 2 to 3 times. The filtrate is then stored in a 10% formalin solution.

Specific determinations were made using original descriptions, European keys and collections from the Rabat Institute of Science (Morocco) (Table 1).

Results and Discussions

The purpose of this inventory is to enhance taxonomic knowledge of Coleoptera zoological group in Moroccan rice fields. The biodiversity shows that the colopterological group of the Gharb plain rice fields is very diversified in comparison with the number of taxa of the same group harvested in the rice fields of Camargue (France) [9]. These 39 species distributed over 12 families form a banal and classical taxonomic composition of the shallow environments of the littoral zones and the lakes. However there are representatives species typical of this ecosystem, it is the case of the Carabidae, Chrysomelidae, Curculionidae and Coccinellidae.

In addition, among the most faunistic results from this study is the discovery for the first time of a number of taxa that have not been the subject of previous citations. We mention the species of Lissorphopterus oryzophilus, Nanophyses nitidulus and Sitophilus oryzae.

Composition of the entomological Moroccan rice fields based on the choronological categories established by Greca (1964) attributed to each taxon according to its area of occupation [10] shows that it consists essentially by Mediterranean elements (44.7%), followed by Palearctic distribution (29.4%) and species with a wide geographical distribution (25.8%) (Figure 2).

This analysis shows that Mediterranean Europe appears richer than North Africa, both in number of species and number of endemic species. This would be due to the isolation of North Africa from Europe at the end of the tertiary and desertification of the Sahara in the quaternary [11]. These two phenomena have constituted a biogeographic barrier to the fauna of Europe and Africa. These results are similar during the study of the benthic population of the Moulouya watershed [12].

Table 1:Summary table of species belonging to the order of coleoptera harvested in Moroccan ricefiels.

In addition, interspecific relationships based on bibliographic data reveals the predominance among this population of predatory species that are characterized by active behavior, which allows them to hunt large numbers of prey. Except of Imagos of Hydrophilidae and Haliplidae, Coleoptera chrysomelidae and Curculionidae are considered phytophagous [5,13-20] which the majority of species have carnivorous habits. So they can fight against the outbreaks of organisms that can cause damage to this crop. Thus, these predators can be considered as aids to this crop, and therefore contribute to biological control that occurs spontaneously in the rice field, especially in places where there is no use of a wide range of pesticides. In addition, many species among this group have a mixed diet, which ensures greater diversity and stability in the community.

In order to look for the spatio-temporal evolution of the Coleopopera population of the Moroccan rice fields during the two rice seasons 2105 and 2016, we used the correspondence factorial analysis (CFA). This statistical method is widely used, by several authors [7,8,21-23] to analyze the structuring of lentic and lotic environments.

Distribution of the species subjected to this multivariate analysis highlights the individualization of three main groups of species around the factorial plane F1 x F2, which are organized in a continuum in the same direction as the seasonality gradient. statements. This analysis shown the presence of species with summer and automnal development and spreading species along the culture cycle (Figure 3).

Group I: Species with summer development

This is the case of Dytiscidae E. sticticus known for its great carnivorous power, frequenting calm waters rich in aquatic vegetation [13,24] and with an abundance of soft prey composed mainly of larvae of Diptera chironomidae.

Other species in this group P. caesus and P. aeneus are considered as phytophagous [25], in particular at the larval stage which are most often associated with the characeae in addition to their preference for waters with high mineralization rates, especially for P. aeneus [16,25].

figure 3:Biotypology of rice fields: structure of the cloud-species in the factorial plane F1 X F2.

Group II: Autumnal species

For the colopterological population, we can highlight a first group represented by the Coleoptera hydrocanthares (C. atriceps, L. hyalinus, N. leavis, C. ambiguus, A. dorsalis, P. melanarius). They are described as an excelent predators of aphids, leafhopper nymphs and stem borers which abound during this period, in addition to their preference for areas rich in aquatic vegetation and decomposing organic matter, particularly for representatives of the family Carabidae and the Dytiscidae [5,25-27]. The second group is represented by the species L. oryzophilus, considered as phytophagous, devastating plants of rice [28]. According to the Chrysomelid (L. octamaculata) compared to its highly polyphagous behavior [29], its presence at this stage would be related to the abundance of prey of all kinds at that time.

Group III: Species with spreading development throughout the rice season

Between these two characteristic groups of the summer and autumn season distribution, many species are usually present throughout the rice field practice. This intermediate group is constituted by the Coleoptera hydrocanthares which are known as voracious carnivorous predators. The primary consumers who serve them as food are in direct relation with the vegetable biomass of the rice fields [5,13]. It therefore seems obvious to relate their presence to certain types of plants, especially those that will directly serve as food such as filamentous algae, characeae and probably Oryza sativa present throughout the rice cycle. This plant cover also plays a supporting role for these species which are bad swimmers.

On the other hand, N. nitidulus is known by its plants pest, especially at the stem part of the plant [30]. the ladybug C. septempunctata, well known for its use in biological control, because it is predatory in the larval and adult stages [20]. Its prey are the small insects: Aphids, Mealybugs, Whiteflies, Diptera and Lepidoptera larvae (caterpillars). They can also eat insect eggs [31]. They are therefore entomophagous predators, active during the day and frequenting the top half of the rice plants.

Finally, O. maurus is considered as characteristic of lotic environments of freshwaters [12]. Its presence in the rice fields is linked to the phenomenon of the natural drift of these organisms from irrigation water, where the favorable conditions for its reproduction are meeting.

Conclusion

The taxonomic study of the Coleopterological group of the rice fields of the Gharb plain (Morocco) shows that it is very diversified in comparison with other similar environments despite of the short period of the rice cycle. This agricultural ecosystem has 39 species spread over 12 of the most representative families of this group. It is essentially composed by Mediterranean taxa, followed by species whose distribution extends to the Palearctic domain and finally species with a wide geographical distribution. On the other hand, due to their pronounced predatory power, most of the listed species contribute to a significant biological control by controlling the outbreaks of insects harmful to rice.

The biotypological study has highlighted the individualization of three main groups of species around the factorial plane F1/ F2: summer-growing species grouped on the positive pole of the F1 axis; species with autumnal development, distributed on the negative pole and finally the grouping of spreading species along the culture cycle.

References

1. Anonyme (1970) Atlas du bassin de sebou. p. 143.
2. Anonyme (1974) Rice report of the O.R.M.V.A.G. ministry of agriculture and agrarian reform. p. 13.
3. Combe E (1969) Hydrogeological map of the gharb plain 1/100000. Morocco, p. 39.
4. Lahlou O (1989) Rice growing in Gharb: Current situation and prospects. Report of the study day on the contraints related to Moroccan rice cultivation and current methods of genetic improvement of rice
5. Ramdani M (1981) Hydrobiological research on the Merja deSidi Boughaba (Atlantic coast of Morocco), Physico-chemiquai study and faunistic analysis. Bull Inc Sc Rabat 5: 73-133.
6. Himmi O (1991) Culicidae (Diptera) from Morocco. Updated key of determination and study of the dynamics and the biological cycles of some populations of the Rabat-Kenitra region. Thesis 3rd cycle, Univ Med V Rabat, Morocco, p. 185.
7. Berady K (1997) Bio-ecological research on the entomological settlement of rice fields in the gharb plain (Morocco). Thesis of 3rd cycle, Univ Ibn Tofail, Kenitra, Morocco, p. 158.
8. Aoujdad R (1996) Ecological and systematic research on cladoceran crustaceans from the gharb plain (Morocco). Thesis of 3rd cycle, Univ Ibn Tofail, Kenitra, Morocco, p. 135.
9. Viala M (1978) First elements of macrofauna stand and Odonata (Ischnaura elegans) populations in shallow environments. DEA, USTL, Montpelier, USA, p. 56.
10. Aukema P, Reiger C (1995) Catalogue of the heteroptera the palaearctic region. The Netherlands Entomlogical Society 1: 222.
11. Louanci A (2014) 4th Franco-maghrebian congress of zoology and 5th Franco-tunisian days of zoology Korba-Tunisia.
12. Lamri D, Hassouni T, Loukili A, Belghyti D, Chahlaoui A (2016) Contribution to the knowledge of coleoptera (Coleoptera) of the moulouya hydrographic network (Morocco). Faunistic Entomology 69: 97-109.
13. Aouad N (1984) Ecological study of hydrophiloidae of stagnant waters of the rabat region (Coleoptera: Palpicornes). Thesis 3rd cycle, Univ Paul Sabatier, Toulouse III, France, p. 149.
14. Aguilar RM (2000) Intro production of aroz in southern Spain. p. 320.
15. Aguilar RM (2001) Research strategies for development in transition economies. Mediterranean options notebooks. pp. 123-126.
16. Queney P (2005) French maritime locations, new or confirmed, for hygrotus (Coelambus) nigrolineatus (STEVEN, 1808) and Pallidulus (AUBE, 1850), Metaporus meridionalis (AUBE, 1838), Octhebius bifoveolatus (WALTL, 1835) (oleoptera: Dytiscidae and Hydraenidae). The Coleopterist 8(2): 138-139.
17. Meurgey F (2011) The continental arthropode of guadeloupe: bibliographical synthesis for a state of the places of knowledge. SHNLH report for the national park of Guadeloupe, France, p. 184.
18. Delobel M (2012) The presence in belgium of dieckmanniellus nitidulus (GYLLENHAL, 1838) (Coleoptera: Curculionoidae Nanophyidae) and the key to identification of nanophyidae species. Faunistic Entomology 65: 105-117.
19. Essakhi D, El harchli EH, Benjelloun M, Maazouzi M, Mansouri I, et al. (2015) Contribution to the study of the diet of Orthoptera Locusts in the Middle Atlas (Morocco). International journal of engineering and science 5: 60-66.
20. Rafarasoa LS, Ranarilalatiana T, Andrianantoandro A, Ravaomanarivo LH (2015) Biodiversity of the entomofauna of rice paddies in the alaotra lake region (Madagascar). Malagasy Nature 9: 15-38.
21. Dakki M (1986) Hydrological research on the upper sebou (Middle Atlas): A contribution to the faluna, ecological and historical knowledge of the south-mediterranean waters. Thesis Doct State Univ Med V, Rabat, Morocco, p. 214.
22. Fekhaoui M (1990) Hydrobiological researches on the upper sebou subjected to the discharges of the city of Fez; followed by macropollution and assessment of its richness on the physical, chemical and biological components of the ecosystem. Thesis Doct State Univ Med V, Rabat, Morocco, p. 173.
23. Maqboul A (1996) Biological and ecological research on the malacological fauna of the plain of gharb (Morocco). Thesis 3rd cycle, Univ Ibn Tofail, Kenitra, Morocco, p. 157.
24. El alaoui AMA (1985) Contribution to the ecological study of coleoptera hydrocanthares of the moroccan coastal meseta. Thesis 3rd cycle, Univ Med V, Rabat, Morocco, p. 171.
25. Bloechl A, Kahneman S, Philipi B, Melbert A (2010) Abundance, diversity and succession of aquatic Coleoptera and Heteroptera in a cluster of artificial ponds in the North German Lowlands. Limnologica-Ecologiy and Management of Inland Waters 40(3): 215-225.
26. Cojocaru I, Popescu IE (2004) At the diversity of Coleoptera aquatiques (Insecta, Coleoptera) of the marais of cows (Bucarest). Scientific Annals of the University, Animal Biology, pp. 77-83.
27. Baranovska J, Knapp E, Saska P (2014) The effects of everwintering sex, year, field identity and vegetation at the boundary of fields on the body condition of Anchomenus dorsalis (Coleoptera : Carabidae). Eur J Entomol 111(5): 608-614.
28. Lupi D, Colombo M, Giudici ML, Villa B, Sparacino AC, et al. (2007) Present status of knowledge on Lissorhoptrus orysophilus. 4éme inetrnational Temperate Rice Conference 2007: 138-139.
29. Beenen R, Roques A (2010) Leaf and seed beetles (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae). In: Roques A, Coll (Eds.), Alien terrestrial arthropods of Europe. Biorisk 4(1): 267-292.
30. Hemptine JL, Magro A, Majerus M (2005) Ladybugs, description, cohabitation, observation. In: Delachaux, Nestle (Eds.), Paris, France, p. 192.
31. Magro A, Le compte E, Magne F, Hemptine JL, Crouau-roy B (2010) Phylogeny of ladybirds (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) are the subfamilies monophyletic. Molecular phylogenetics and evolution 54(3): 833-848.

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Study on Design, Fabrication and Properties of Biomedical Porous Titanium _Crimson Publishers

Study on Design, Fabrication and Properties of Biomedical Porous Titanium by  Guangsheng Xu in Research & Development in Material Science_Materials Science and Technology

Mini Review

It has been shown that introducing porous structure in titanium and its alloys implant material is an effective way to reduce the "stress shielding" effect [1,2]. Interconnected pores in titanium and its alloys not only can decrease Young's modulus through tailoring porosity but also can enhance bone ingrowth and improve fixation [3,4]. Therefore, design, fabrication, mechanical behavior and biocompatibility of porous titanium and its alloys have become a research focus in this field. Development of fabrication methods, together with studies of mechanical behavior and biocompatibility is beneficial to improve the performance of porous titanium and its alloys for implant applications.

First, effect of pore size, pore shape, pore topology and strut material on mechanical properties of porous titanium and its alloys has been studied by using computer simulation methods. The results show that porosity increases as the pore size increases from 200|im to 500|im, which also leads to the decrease in Young's modulus and yield strength of porous titanium. Porous titanium with square pores has a low Young's modulus and relatively high yield strength compared with the circle and hexagonal pores. Porous titanium has a good match of elastic modulus and high yield strength when pore topology is changed from regular array to staggered array. In addition, yield strength increases as the strut material changed from CP-Ti to Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Therefore, Young's modulus and yield stress of porous titanium and its alloys can be adjusted through designing pore size, pore shape, pore topological arrangement and strut material.

Based on the results of the above simulation, porous titanium is prepared by titanium mesh stacked-forced-sintering method (TMSS) [5]. Structure and mechanical properties of the prepared porous titanium are studied by tailoring pore structure parameters, strut material and process parameters [6,7]. The results show that porous titanium fabricated by TMSS has square pore structure. There are no cracks and inclusions on the strut. Mechanical behavior of porous titanium is anisotropic and sensitive to strain rate. The flow curves are smooth, stable and no obvious serration yield process. The strain for plastic platform region reaches up to 64%. It can obtain a fine match of low elastic modulus and high yield strength by regulating the pore topology at the same porosity [8]. Porous titanium prepared by Ti-6Al-4V alloys owns Young's modulus and tensile strength in the range of 9.5~12.2GPa and 360~505MPa, respectively. Fatigue fracture intensity level is about 40MPa at the testing condition of R =-1, f=10Hz and N=5*106. Heat treatment has much more influence in the tensile stress but minor influence in the Young's modulus [9] (Figure 1).

Figure 1a: Schematic diagram of porous titanium.
1b: Microstructure model of porous titanium,
1c: Mechanical properties of porous titanium, bulk titanium and natural bone.

References

1. Long M, Rack HJ (1998) Titanium alloys in total joint replacement--a materials science perspective. Biomaterials 19(18): 1621-1639.
2. St-Pierre JP, Gauthier M, Lefebvre LP, Tabrizian M (2005)Three- dimensional growth of differentiating MC3T3-E1 pre-osteoblasts on porous titanium scaffolds. Biomaterials 26(35): 7319-7328.
3. Takemoto M, Fujibayashi S, Neo M, Suzuki J, Kokubo T, et al. (2005) Mechanical properties and osteoconductivity of porous bioactive titanium. Biomaterials 26(30): 6014-6023.
4. Gepreel MA, Niinomi M (2013) Biocompatibility of Ti-alloys for longterm implantation. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials 20: 407-415.
5. Xu GS (2013) The Chinese Journal of Nonferrous Metals 23(S1): 343.
6. Xu GS (2014) Rare Metal Materials and Engineering 43(11): 2778.
7. Li FP, Li J, Xu G, Liu G, Kou H, et al. Fabrication, pore structure and compressive behavior of anisotropic porous titanium for human trabecular bone implant applications. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials 46: 104-114.
8. Xu GS, Kou HC, Liu XH, Li F, Li J, et a l. (2017) Microstructure and mechanical properties of porous titanium based on controlling young's modulus. Rare Metal Materials and Engineering 46(8): 2041-2048.
9. Xu GS (2017) Rare Metal Materials and Engineering 46(S1): 478

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Response of Soybean to Micronutrients, Amino Acid and NPK Foliar Application Under Normal and Drought Stress Condition_Crimson Publishers

Response of Soybean to Micronutrients, Amino Acid and NPK Foliar Application Under Normal and Drought Stress Condition by Ajam Norozei H in Environmental Analysis & Ecology Studies_Crimson Publishers high impact Journals

Abstract

Soybean (Glycin max (L.) Merr), from the legume’s family has an important place among the industrial plants in the world. It’s a summer plant and faced the heat and drought season During the growing season, its greatly affect soybean yield. Drought stress is one of the most important environmental factors in reducing the growth and yield of many crops, especially in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. The foliar application of the nutrient elements increases the yield, quality, resistance to pests and diseases and resistance to drought stress. A field experiments was carried out at the Agricultural Experimental Station of the Agriculture Research Centre at Iraqi -mahallah during summer seasons of 2016 and 2017 to study the effect of foliar application of Ca Zn, B, N, P, k Amino acid and water on growth, yield and quality of two soybean cultivars under normal and water stress conditions. Result showed the effect of foliar application year on plant height, pod number per plant, seed number per pod and grain yield was significant. the highest grain yield (4021.91kg ha-1) achieved B application in 2017.

The lowest grain yield (237.41kg ha-1) was obtain in 2016 and control treatment, also there was no significant difference between control treatment and water application in two year of experiment. The result showed in 2017 there was no significant difference in treatment in seed protein content. also, there was no significant difference between foliar application and control in seed oil content in 2016. Also, two cultivars have significant different in grain yield in 2017. But there was no significant difference in two cultivars in 2016. In general, results showed that spray application of nutrients, especially B application, improves the yield and yield component (number of pods, number of seed, 1000-seed weight and grain yield) in normal and drought stress.

Keywords: Grain yield; Irrigation; Nutrition; Seed oil; Seed protein

Introduction

Drought stress is one of the most important environmental factors in reducing the growth and yield of many crops, especially in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. Reduced photosynthesis due to close the stomatal, decreasing plant growth, the lack of photosynthetic materials necessary to fill grain and reduce the length of grain filling period is one of the most important drought effects on plants. Drought reduced photosynthetic rate and metabolism of carbohydrates in leaves, and these two processes reduce the amount of material available for transfer to the storage plant’s organs, which can increase the abortion of the reproductive organ. During drought stress, due to the increase in soluble concentrations in the root environment and thus the increase of the soil osmotic potential, the absorption of nutrients is greatly reduced.

When the soil pH is rising, the absorption of micronutrient elements is higher than other elements Becomes disturbed. Soybean (Glycin max (L.) Merr), from the legume’s family has an important place among the industrial plants in the world. According to the Bureau of Statistics and Information of the Iran Agricultural Jahad Organization The total area under cultivation of soybeans in Iran during the 2011-2012 crop year was between 76 thousand hectares, reaching 78 thousand hectares in 2015, that produced 190 thousand tons grain from this area. It’s a summer plant and faced the heat and drought season During the growing season, its greatly affect soybean yield. Good and Zaplachiniski (1994), reported Accumulation of compounds such as proline and amino acids in green tissues of rapeseed under drought stress conditions, provide water absorption from the root environment for the plant.

But the plant’s reliance on these organic compounds is costly to regulate osmotic and will reduce yield. Suitable Nutrition Under conditions of stress, help plant to Tolerance Different stress [1]. The results of various experiments show that the foliar application of the elements increases the yield, Quality, resistance to pests and diseases and resistance to drought stress. In soybeans, application of Zn increased dry matter, number of pods, number of seeds per pod and 100 seed weight. Zinc may also increase seed yield by increasing the absorption of other nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Positive effects of zinc have been reported in the production of growth hormones (auxins) and photosynthesis.

Bergland (2002) has reported that zinc spray application, especially in vegetative growth stages, increases the yield of soybeans. Researchers reported that biomass, grain yield and oil content of sesamum indicum L. increased with the Boron foliar application and on effect deficiency of boron, did not produce any seeds in this plant. Riley et al. (2000) also reported increase in oil and protein content of Wheat and canola seeds in using zinc sulfate. Aghei Sarbarzeh (1995) investigating the relationship between zinc and drought tolerance index in wheat showed that Zinc application increased drought tolerance in bread wheat and durum wheat cultivars. Marschner expressed Zinc is involved as a cofactor in activating several enzymes. These enzymes play a role in the metabolism of carbohydrates and proteins. Delaney et al. Zinc and Mn, especially in drought-tolerant cultivars, play a role in the osmotic regulation process with increased proline and soluble sugars. Movahedi Dehnavi (2001) reported an increase in zinc in the seed filling stage in Carthamus tinctorius L drought stress conditions, also drought stress at the reproductive stage limits the transfer of Fe and Mn to grain. The present study was conducted to determine the effect of spraying various micronutrient on yield and quality of soybean under drought stress conditions.

Material and Methods

The study was conducted at Agricultural Research Station of Gorgan, Golestan province, Iran (5m a.s.l., 36 N, 54°E). Based on Coupon classification the region could be classified as warm and humid climate. Experiment was conducted during summer seasons of 2016 and 2017 to study the effect of foliar application of Ca Zn, B N, P, K Amino acid and water on growth, yield and quality of two soybean cultivars under water stress conditions. Soil chemical and mechanical characteristic are presented in Table 1. Characteristics of the genotypes tested in this research presented in Table 2. Also, the meteorological statistics of the test site during the two cultivation years are presented in Table 3.

Table 1:Some of physicochemical characteristics of field soil.

Table 2:Characteristics of the genotypes tested in this research.

Table 3:Variation of temperature and rainfall in Hashemabad meteorology station during 2016-2017 growing seasons.

A factorial split-plot design in a randomized complete block with three replicates was applied in two condition normal (irrigation after 60mm Evaporation from the evaporation pan and water stress (120mm Evaporation from the evaporation pan). The main plots included: normal and drough stress condition. also, Ca Zn B N, P, K. Water and control (no- spraying) and two soybean genotypes (DPX and Amir) were located in subplots. Each subplots size into main plot were 3.6×5m and consisted of six planting rows. The distance between the blocks and the main plot was 2m, the distance between the plants was 8cm, the distance between the rows was 60cm. The cultivation was in joly of both years. for seed emergence an Irrigation was Done after planting. To apply drought stress, irrigation was continued when 120mm Evaporation from the evaporation pan. Phonological stages were recorded during the experiment with Fehr & Caviness (1977) method.

Foliar application of these treatments was used according to the manufacturer’s recommendation during three stages of the beginning of flowering (R1 stage), beginning of seed filling (R3 stage) and termination of seed filling (R5 stage). In each year after harvesting maturity, sampling for measurement grain yield and yield components from each experimental unit was performed taking into account marginal effects. For Ca, Zn and B treatments were used CaCl, ZnSO4 and H3BO3. Foliar application of these treatments was used during two stages of the beginning of flowering (R1 stage), beginning of seed filling (R3 stage) and termination of seed filling (R5 stage) according to the manufacturer’s recommendation.

The measurements included the final plant height, the height of the first node from the soil surface, the number of nodes in the main steam and the number of branches in 5 randomized plants. Also, the yield components were including number of pods per plant, number of pods per square meter, number of seeds per pod, weight of 100 seeds and grain yield (kg/ha). For estimation of total oil content, 10g of seeds were crushed and extracted with petroleum ether for 4h in a Soxhlet apparatus according to the method described by AOAC. The extract was concentrated under reduced pressure. The total seed oil content was calculated as percentage of sesame seeds (Hussein et al. 2016). Oil yield was calculated by using grain yield × Oil percent (Malacrida et al. 2011). All of the data obtained for two consecutive years were subjected to analysis of variance using SAS software (Statistical Analysis Software, 9.1). Differences among the treatments were assessed with the LSD (least significant difference) only when the ANOVA F-test showed significance at P=0.05 and Excel 2010 software was used for calculating and plotting charts.

Result and Discussion

Analysis variance of data showed that year had significant effect on pod number per plant, number of seeds per pod, number of seeds per plant, 100 seed weight and grain yield at p<0.1%. The results showed Irrigation had significant effect on seed protein and oil content. interaction effect of year × irrigation on seed number per plant was significant but had no significant effect on seed oil and protein percent. Also, interaction effect of irrigation × cultivar and irrigation × cultivar × cultivar on any of the mentioned traits was not significant. The results showed that interaction effect of irrigation × foliar application on pod number per plant, 100 seed weight, grain yield, seed protein and oil content was significant. The result showed that there was no significant difference in terms of number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, number of seeds per plant and percentage of protein content in the studied varieties.

However, there was a significant difference in seed oil content, grain yield and 100-seed weight in the studied varieties. The foliar application effect on seed yield and yield components and seed oil and protein content was significant. the interaction effect of year × foliar application on number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, number of seeds per plant, 100 seed weight and seed yield were significant. The results showed that the interaction effect of spray × cultivars on seed oil and protein content was significant. Also, interaction effect of year × foliar application× cultivar and year × irrigation × foliar application × cultivar on any of the traits was not significant.

Interaction effect of year × irrigation

The results showed that there was no significant difference in plant height between normal moisture condition and drought stress in the first year of experiment (2016). but, the number of seeds per plant and grain yield were significantly different (Table 4). In the first year of experiment (2016), the highest number of seeds per plant and grain yield were 49.55 and 1428.33 (kg ha-1) in normal moisture conditions (Table 4). In the second year of experiment (2017), there was a significant difference in plant height and number of seeds per plant between normal condition and drought stress. The highest plant height (66.57cm) and number of seeds per plant (178.23) was obtained in Normal condition.

Table 4:Mean comparisons of year and irrigation on soybean traits.

Note: Any two means sharing a common letter do not differ significantly from each other at 5%.

However, there was no significant difference in grain yield between two moisture conditions (Table 4). Karami et al. (2011) in their study on the effect of Zinc element irrigation on yield and yield components of soybean in water stress conditions reported that Zinc sulfate application increased yield and yield components. They reported application of zinc coatings could reduce the effects of water stress and improve the growth conditions for the plant. Goodarzi et al. (2013), in study of the effect of different concentrations of Iron and Zinc on the Zea maiz .L, reported that the interaction effect of Iron 2mg.L^-1 and Zinc 8mg.L^-1 was significant and the highest 1000-seed weight, seed number per row, row number per corn, biological yield, grain yield, harvest index and yield of seed oil were obtained in interaction effect of Iron 2 mg.L^-1 and Zinc 8mg.L^-1.

Interaction of foliar application × irrigation

The results of the means comparison in (Table 5) showed that in the normal conditions, the highest plant height was 81.66cm and obtained in the amino acid foliar application treatment. However, there was no significant difference in plant height between Zn and Amino acid treatment. Also, there was no significant difference in treatments of Ca and N.P.K foliar application in plant height and the lowest plant height (46cm) was obtained in control treatment. Also, in normal conditions the number of stem nodes in Ca, Zn, B, N.P.K and amino acids was in a group and the lowest number of stem node was 2.7 and obtained in control treatment (Table 5).

The highest pod number per plant was 77.41 and observed in N.P.K treatment. However, Zn, B, N.P.K and amino acid were grouped into a common statistical group (Table 5). The lowest pod number per plant was 35.58 and obtained in control treatment. In the normal conditions, the highest 100- seed weight was obtained in B foliar application, and other treatments have not significant difference. also, the highest grain yield was 3631.25kg/ha and obtained in and in B spray application. The lowest grain yield was 1115.25kg ha-1 and observed in control treatment and no significant difference was observed in water foliar application and control. our results showed, in the normal conditions, the highest seed protein was obtained in water application. And was no significant difference in other treatment in seed protein. The highest oil seed was obtained in the control treatment. However, the water foliar application and control have not significant difference (Table 5) in drought stress conditions Different results were obtained.

The results showed that under drought stress conditions, none of the treatments had significant effect on plant height, number of nodes on main stem and 100 -seed weight. The highest number of pods per plant was 61 and obtained in B foliar application. But there was no significant difference between Ca, Zn, B, N.P.K and Amino acid treatment. The lowest number of pods per plant (40.33) observed in water foliar application and there was no significant difference with control treatment results showed that in drought stress conditions, the highest grain yield was obtained in B application (2753.83kg ha-1). Also, there was no significant difference in Ca, Zn, N.P.K and amino acids treatments. The lowest grain yield was 1295.66kg ha-1 and obtained in control treatment (Table 5). Results showed, in drought stress conditions, none of the foliar application treatments had a significant effect on oil seed and protein content (Table 5).

Table 5:Mean comparisons of irrigation and foliar application on soybean traits.

Note: Any two means sharing a common letter do not differ significantly from each other at 5%.

Interaction of Year × cultivar

The results showed that the interaction of year × cultivar on the number of stem node and grain yield was significant. in the first year of the experiment (2016), the highest number of stem nodes was 3.15 and in the Amir cultivar. However, in the second year of experiment, two cultivars did not differ significantly in terms of number of stem node (Table 6). Also, in the first year of experiment, there was no significant difference in cultivar grain yield. But in 2017, the highest grain yield was 3178.52kg/ha and in the Katoul cultivar (Table 6).

Table 6: Mean comparisons of year and cultivar on soybean traits.

Note: Any two means sharing a common letter do not differ significantly from each other at 5%.

Interaction of the year x foliar application

Analysis of variance showed that the interaction of year × foliar application was significant on plant height, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, number of seeds per plant and grain yield (Table 7). In the first year of experiment (2016), the highest plant height was 81.66cm and was obtained in the amino acid foliar application. Also, there was no significant difference between and amino acid and Zn treatments in plant height. Result showed Ca, B and N.P.K treatments were classified in a common statistical group for plant height. The lowest plant height was 46cm and was obtained in control treatment. Also, there was no significant difference between water foliar application and control treatments. In the second year of experiment (2017), there was no significant difference between treatments in plant height (Table 7).

In the first year of experiment, the highest number of pods per plant was 54.16 and obtained in N.P.K application. However, NPK and amino acid foliar application have not significant difference in number of pods per plant. The lowest number of pods per plant was 17.08 and obtained in the control. But in 2017, the highest number of pods per plant was 93 and obtained in B application. Also, Ca, Zn, N.P.K and amino acids have not significant difference. The lowest number of pods per plant was 60.08 and observed in control treatment. However, there was no significant difference between control treatment and water application (Table 7).

In the first year of the experiment, there was no significant difference between Ca, Zn, B, N.P.K and amino acids in seed number per pod. Also, water application and control treatment had lowest number of seed per pod. In the second year of experiment (2017), the highest number of seeds per pod (2.60) was obtained in B application. Also, the lowest number of seeds per pod (1.69) obtained in control treatments that have not significant difference with water application treatments. The number of seeds per plant was also similar to the number of seeds per pod (Table 7). The results showed that in the first year of experiment, the highest grain yield was 2363.16kg. ha-1 and was obtained in B treatment. Also, there was no significant difference in Ca, Zn, N.P.K and amino acids in grain yield.

The lowest grain yield was observed in control treatment and was not significant difference between control and water application (Table7). In the second year of experiment (2017), the highest grain yield was 4021.91kg ha-1 and observed in B application. Also, the lowest grain yield was 2173.50kg. ha-1 and obtained in control treatment. Hosseinpour et al. (2011), showed that Amino acid foliar application increase grain yield, protein and oil content significantly (Table 7).

Table 7:Mean comparisons of year and foliar application on soybean traits.

Note: Any two means sharing a common letter do not differ significantly from each other at 5%.

Interaction of the cultivar × foliar application

Our results showed that interaction of cultivar × foliar application on plant height, seed oil and protein content was significant. According to the results in Katol cultivar, there was no difference between treatments in plant height and seed oil. the lowest protein content was 20.17% and observed in Ca foliar application, but there was no significant difference in treatment and control (Table 8). But in the Amir cultivar, Ca, Zn, B, N, P, K and amino acids have not significant difference in plant height. Also, control and water application treatment have the lowest plant height. The results showed, in Amir cultivar, there was no significant difference in protein percentage between treatments. But the highest percentage of seed oil was observed in control treatment, there was no significant difference in water application and control. Also, Ca, Zn, B, N, P, K and amino acids have not significant difference seed oil (Table 8).

Table 8:Mean comparisons of cultivar and foliar application on soybean traits.

Note: Any two means sharing a common letter do not differ significantly from each other at 5%.

Most plants can usually tolerate mild stresses and their growth is not reduced. But when the drought stress is severe Due to the decrease in cellular inflammation, cell growth and division, and eventually plant growth, are greatly reduced. Rahimizadeh et al. (2012) reported that drought stress had a significant effect on plant height in sunflower, lowest plant height was observed in severe drought stress treatment (25% less than non-stress treatment). Imam and Rabbani (2011) also found that drought stress in vegetative stage reduced plant height significantly (10.2%) in Maize. Soy (glycine max l) The most important oily plants and has the highest cultivation area in the world among oily plants [2]. In About 1/3 of the world’s cultivated lands, drought stress is major factor in reducing crop yield [3]. Under drought stress due to osmotic potential loss, nutrient availability is one of the most influential factors in plant growth and development.

On the other hand, most of the agricultural soils of Iran are facing low pH, leading to low nutrients solubility. Under such a condition, application of fertilizers may result in increased nutrients solubility [4]. Drought stress reduces biomass, grain yield, plant height and number of branches in soybeans [5]. Drought stress during plant growth period reduced plant height, number of nodes, branch number, plant weight, seed number, seed weight, pod number, pod weight and soybean harvest index [6]. the study of the effect of two levels of irrigation on two soybean cultivars (one narrow growth and unlimited growth) showed that drought stress at the seed filling stage reduced grain weight. The effective grain filling period was not affected by the stress in the non- determinate cultivar, but this period was reduced in determinate cultivar.

The stress is one of the main factors affecting seed composition, protein content, grain yield and finally the quality of crops decrease the rate of carbon dioxide metabolism, reduce stomatal conductance and decrease water use efficiency, the factors involved in the reducing crop yields under drough stress conditions [7]. Hemmati et al. (2018) reported that Under drought stress, reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced due to an imbalance between light interception and its use and ROS, causing damage to a plant. Bilaloy et al. (2013) also reported seed oil content of soybean under drought stress showed a significant decrease. The reason is the high sensitivity of lipid accumulation to drought stress at the seed filling stage. Kandogan et al. (2013) in their research on soybeans, reported that different levels of drought stress increased seed protein content and the lowest percentage of protein was obtained in control treatment (complete irrigation).

Drought stress in flowering stage delayed flowers formation, also increase percentage of infertile flowers, falling flowers and pods Therefore, these problems can reduce the number of pods in drought stress conditions [8]. Usually in soils where pH, chemical composition of food and root growth conditions and intake of nutrient element is unsuitable, crop is encountered with a nutritional disorder. Under drought stress conditions, due to lower soil soluble content, the crop faces nutrient element deficiency. Therefore, in this condition, nutrient foliar application is the best way to crop nutrition [9]. The nutrients can be applied to crop in a variety of ways like seed treatment, soil and foliar application [10].

Foliar application of micronutrients improves the nutrition [11]. Zhang et al. [12,13] reported foliar Zn application, foliar N, P, and K fertilization has been used to increase crop production, especially in dryland areas. The limited translocation of Zn in woody species can result in highly non-uniform Zn distribution and the occurrences of the characteristic symptoms of Zn deficiency in fruit/nut trees which includes poor apical meristem development, resetting and tufting of newly emerged leaves [14]. The use of macro- and micro- nutrients is one of the strategies for coping with environmental stresses [15]. Kumar-Pal et al. [16] observed that application of B, Se, and Fe, which may be attributed to increased levels of photosynthetic pigments (2013).

In fact, spraying causes the nutrients reach the crop during critical stages of growth, and when the plant needs nutrient more [17]. Oilseed crop such as soybeans are more susceptible to micronutrient deficiency, especially B, Zn and iron in comparison with cereals. However, the effects of foliar applications of Zn and Fe on rice growth could be related to the initial Zn and Fe supply [12,18]. It has recently been reported that the foliar application of Zn-amino acids chelates (ZnAACs) can improve the nutritional quality of wheat and is more effective than ZnSO4 in increasing grain Zn, Fe, and protein concentrations and Zn bioavailability [19]. The Zn concentrations of grain milling fractions are also

improved by foliar Zn applications. Additionally, the increase in the Zn concentrations of grain and grain milling fractions due to foliar fertilization is enhanced by increased soil N levels in both fields and green-houses (Cakmak et al., 2010; Kunman et al., 2011) improvements in rice yield after lime or foliar application of Zn or Fe have also been reported [18,20].

Salama et al. [21] reported Zn is a cofactor of carbonic anhydrase that increases the content of CO2 in the chloroplast, and thus also increases the carboxylation capability of the Rubisco enzyme. Kader et al. [22] reported that Zn has an important role in biological activity, such as enzymatic activity, chlorophyll synthesis and nutrient absorption from root. also, Researchers have shown that Zn and Ca foliar application have a positive effect on crop growth under environmental stress conditions [23]. Brand & Heinickle [24] obtained the ZnSO4 had a positive effect on total carbohydrate content that may be due to its important role in carbohydrate metabolism enzymes. also, Zn is a vital nutrient for the plants and its role as a structural constituent or regulatory co-factor in wide range of different enzymes [1]. This support late season foliar application of macro and micronutrients (N, B and Zn) can enhance concentration of carbohydrates and mineral nutrients reserves [25-30].

Conclusion

The results showed that drought stress reduce soybean yield and yield components, which depends on the severity of the stress. The weather conditions can also be effective. in the year with less rainfall, the effect of drought stress was higher. In these conditions, the nutrient foliar application played a more effective role in preventing the loss of soybean yield. Also, results showed that spray application of nutrients, especially B, improves the yielding traits (number of capsules, number of seed, 100-seed weight, grain yield and biological yield) and protein content of the seed under drought stress conditions in each two years of experiment. But the foliar application of nutrient did not have a significant effect on the seed oil content. Between the genotype examined, DPX genotype showed a significant difference in yield and yield component in compared to Amir genotype in normal and drought.

References

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Effect of Two Teaching Methods on Learning Outcomes Regarding Prevention of Cervical Cancer Among Married Women in Rural Areas of Kannur District, Kerala-A Pilot Study _Crimson Publishers

Effect of Two Teaching Methods on Learning Outcomes Regarding Prevention of Cervical Cancer Among Married Women in Rural Areas of Kannur District, Kerala-A Pilot Study by Josephine Jacquline Mary NI in COJ Nursing & Healthcare_journal of nursing and healthcare impact factor

Abstract

Cervical cancer is the second most prevalent cancer among women worldwide and the fifth leading cause of cancer deaths. The study was conducted among married women who met the inclusion criteria in a selected rural areas at Kannur district to assess the effect of two teaching methods on learning outcomes regarding prevention of cervical cancer. Study adopted an experimental two group pre test post test design with a Quantitative research approach. Study was conducted in selected rural areas of Kannur district among married women in the age group 18-60 years. Sampling technique adopted for the study was simple random sampling with the sample size of 60.

The study revealed that there is a marked improvement in the knowledge, attitude, practice and perceived barriers among the married women regarding prevention of cervical cancer after video assisted teaching rather than the self instructional module. Major findings of the study were; majority of the women belongs to the age group of 18- 30years (50%) and most of their age at marriage was 18-30 years (93.3%), 56.7% of women had college education and, 50% of women were housewives. In pre-test out of 30 samples 26(86.6%) samples had inadequate knowledge before video assisted teaching were as in post test 19(63.3%) samples had adequate knowledge after VAT. In pretest out of 30 samples 25 (83.3%) samples had inadequate knowledge before self instructional module were as in post test 3 (10%) samples had adequate knowledge after SIM.

In pretest out of 30 samples 25(83.3%) samples had positive attitude before video assisted teaching and in post test 30(100%) had positive attitude after VAT. In pretest out of 30 samples 22(73.3%) samples had positive attitude before self instructional module and in post test 29(96.6%) had positive attitude after SIM. In pretest out of 30 samples 15(50%) had good practice before video assisted teaching and in post test 22(73.3%) had good practice after VAT. In pre-test out of 30 samples 15(50%) samples had good practice before self instructional module and in post test 17(56.6%) had good practice after SIM. Hence it can be inferred that video assisted teaching is more effective than self instructional module in increasing knowledge score among married women in rural area regarding prevention of cervical cancer.

Keyword: Cervical Cancer; Learning outcomes; VAT and self instructional module

Introduction

Cancer refers to a class of disease to which a cell or group of cells divide and replicate uncontrollably, intrude into adjacent cells and tissues and ultimately spread to other parts of the body than the location at which they arouse [2009]. Cervical cancer mostly affects women age between 18 to 45, is linked to human papilloma virus, a sexually transmitted virus that can also cause genital warts. A pap smear or colposcopy can spot cervical cancer at an early stage and HPV [Human Papiloma Virus] vaccines have been developed [1,2].

Background of the Study

Cervical cancer is the second most prevalent cancer among women worldwide and the fifth leading cause of cancer deaths. A cross sectional study was conducted by Suryapriya Balan [3], to assess the Knowledge of cervical cancer screening among rural Indian women, 407 women aged 21-65 years in a selected village of Karnataka. Majority of the study population (98.5%, 401) had poor knowledge regarding cervical cancer screening. There was no apparent difference in the mean and standard deviation of knowledge scores in the different categories of cervical cancer (2.49±1.665), symptoms (0.43±0.496), Pap smear test (0.33±0.807) and screening guidelines (0.51±0.742) (2013).

A cross-sectional study was conducted by Geeta V, to assess the awareness of cervical cancer among women of reproductive age group in urban slums of Karnataka. Total sample size was 200. Result shows that about 7.5% of the respondents had heard about cervical cancer (2014). A cross sectional study conducted by Jansirani Siddharthar, to assess the knowledge [4], awareness and prevention of cervical cancer among women in tertiary care hospital in Puducherry. 400 women were recruited over three months for the study. The research findings showed that less than half of the study population (178, 44.5%) knew about cervical cancer. Less than one-fourth of the population knew about screening services for prevention of cervical cancer (2013).

Need for the Study

Cervical cancer is a sexually transmitted disease. It has been found that in many developed countries the annual incidence and prevalence of cervical cancer has decreased by 50% to 70% after introduction of population based screening. So if women in India undergo screening for cervical cancer [5], it is possible to detect cancer in early stages and thereby reducing mortality and morbidity. Improvement in living standard of women has resulted in a reduction in the incidence of cervical cancer. Regular cervical cytology examination by all women who have initiated sexual activity can prevent the occurrence of cervical cancer. Hence, the investigator decided to conduct a study on preventive aspects of cervical cancer among women of reproductive age in selected areas of Kerala [6].

Objectives

A. Compare the test scores on knowledge, attitude, practice and perceived barriers of women regarding cervical cancer before and after video assisted teaching.

B. Compare the test scores on knowledge, attitude, practice and perceived barriers of women regarding cervical cancer before and after the self-instructional module.

C. Determine the correlation between knowledge and attitude with the practice of women regarding cervical cancer.

D. Find out the association between knowledge, attitude, practice and perceived barriers with selected sociodemographic variables [7].

E. Identify the effect of pre and post test score on willingness of subjects to undergo Pap smear.

Review of Literature

A Large Prospective Cohort Study was conducted by Jissa V Thulaseedharan, to assess the Socio Demographic and Reproductive Risk Factors for Cervical Cancer in 113 local Panchayats from Rural India. 30,958 women were randomly selected for the study. The result shows that women of increasing age 95%, having many pregnancies and no education were found to be at significantly increased risk of cervical cancer. These findings further stress the importance of formulating public health policies aimed at increasing awareness and implementation of cervical cancer screening programmes (2007).

An experimental study conducted by S Bharatha Sorubarani, to assess the effectiveness of video assisted teaching on prevention of cervical cancer among women in Milaganoor, Sivaganga district, Tamilnadu. Sample size of the study was 60. Result shows that pre-test value is 31.076% and post-test value is 40.22% which shows that rural women lack in knowledge regarding cervical cancer and its prevention [8]. Video assisted teaching is the best method of intervention to create awareness among women in rural community (2013).

A cross sectional study was conducted by SuryapriyaBalan Thovarayi, to assess the Knowledge of cervical cancer screening among rural Indian women. 407 women aged 21-65 years in a randomly selected village of udupitaluk in Karnataka. Majority of the study population (98.5%, 401) had poor knowledge regarding cervical cancer screening. There was no apparent difference in the mean and standard deviation of knowledge scores in the different categories of cervical cancer (2.49±1.665), symptoms (0.43±0.496), Pap smear test (0.33±0.807) and screening guidelines (0.51±0.742). There is very poor knowledge of cervical cancer screening among women (2013).

Another similar study was conducted by HN Harsha Kumar, to assess the knowledge and Screening for Cervical Cancer among Women attending the outpatient departments of teaching hospitals attached to Kasturba Medical College. A sample size of 83 was selected. Majority of the women have poor knowledge about cervical cancer (81.9% [68/83]) and it’s screening (85.5% [71/83]). Only 6 out of 83 women had undergone screening (2012). Hence these findings made the researcher to conduct the study on imparting knowledge on preventive aspects of cervical cancer [9].

Research Methodology

The study was conducted among married women who met the inclusion criteria in a selected rural areas at Kannur district to assess the effect of two teaching methods on learning outcomes regarding prevention of cervical cancer. Study adopted an experimental two group pre test post test design with a Quantitative research approach. Study was conducted in a selected rural areas of Kannur district among married women in the age group of 18- 60 years comes under PHC and CHC. Sampling technique adopted for the study was simple random sampling with the sample size of 60 [10].

Data Collection Process

A prior formal permission obtained from the concerned Institutional authority. The purpose of the study was explained and consent was obtained from the subjects. The investigators recruited 60 samples as per the inclusion criteria and divided into two groups for VAT and the SIM. Each group served as control to other group. Structured questionnaire was used to assess the learning outcomes on knowledge, attitude, practices and perceived barriers among married women regarding prevention of cervical cancer. After the administration of self instructional module and video assisted teaching the post test was conducted after 7 days of educational interventions.

Major Findings

The study deals with analysis and interpretation of pre test and post test data on knowledge, attitude, practice and perceived barriers collected from 60 married women using structured questionnaire regarding the prevention of cervical cancer.

A. Part I: Description of the demographic variables of the respondents

The percentage distribution of respondents participated in the video assisted teaching according to their age shows that majority of the respondents 15(50%) were in the age group of 18-30 years. The percentage distribution of respondents participated in the self instructional module according to their age shows that majority of the respondents 12(40%) were in the age group of 18-30 years. The percentage distribution of respondents participated in the video assisted teaching according to their age at marriage shows that majority of the respondents 28(93.3%) were in the age group of 18-30 years, and none of the respondents age at marriage falls within 41-60 years. The percentage distribution of respondents participated in the self instructional module according to their age at marriage 29(96.7%).

In VAT group majority of the respondents 17(56.7%) had college education, and 2(6.7%) had primary education. Where as in SIM group majority of the respondents 14(46.7%) had college education, and 1(3.3%) had primary education.

B. Part II: Analysis of Pre Test and Post Test Score on Knowledge, Attitude, Practice and Perceived Barriers of Women Regarding Prevention of Cervical Cancer

The data presented in the Table 1 & Table 2 shows that there is no effectiveness on perceived barriers of women regarding prevention of cervical cancer before and after video assisted teaching. But there is effectiveness on knowledge, attitude and practice of women regarding cervical cancer before and after video assisted teaching.

Table 1: Mean, standard deviation, standard error of pre test and post test score on knowledge, attitude, practice and perceived barriers of respondents before and after video assisted teaching.

Table 2: Mean, standard deviation, standard error of pre test and post test score on knowledge, attitude, practice and perceived barriers of respondents before and after self instructional module.

The data presented in the Table 3 shows that there is no effectiveness on practice and perceived barriers of women regarding prevention of cervical cancer in before and after self instructional module. And there is an effectiveness on knowledge and attitude of women regarding cervical cancer in before and after self instructional module.

Table 3: Bivariate analysis of correlation of pre test between knowledge and attitude with the practice of respondents.

Table 4: Grading of pre-test and post-test knowledge score of video assisted teaching.

Part III: Correlation between knowledge and attitude with the practice of women regarding prevention of cervical cancer

Figure 1: 3D diagram showing correlation of post-test on knowledge, attitude with practice.

Part IV: Effect of Pre and Post Test Scores on Willingness of Subjects to Undergo Pap Smear The data shows that 22(73.3%) of respondents are willing to undergo pap smear test and 8(26.6%) of respondents are not willing to undergo pap smear test in video assisted teaching. In self instructional module 17(56.6%) of respondents are willing to undergo pap smear test and 13(43.3%) of respondents are not willing to undergo pap smear test (Figure 1).

In pretest out of 30 samples 26(86.6%) samples had inadequate knowledge before video assisted teaching were as in post test 19(63.3%) samples had adequate knowledge after VAT. In pretest out of 30 samples 25(83.3%) samples had inadequate knowledge before self instructional module were as in post test 3(10%) samples had adequate knowledge after SIM.

Figure 2: Bar diagram showing post-test score on willingness to undergo Pap smear test.

In pretest out of 30 samples 15(50%) had good practice before video assisted teaching and in post test 22(73.3%) had good practice after VAT. In pretest out of 30 samples 15(50%) samples had good practice before self instructional module and in post test 17(56.6%) had good practice after SIM (Figure 2 & 3).

Figure 3: Grading of pre-test and post-test practice score of video assisted teaching and self instructional module.

In pretest out of 30 samples 25(83.3%) samples had positive attitude before video assisted teaching and in post test 30(100%) had positive attitude after VAT. Where as in pretest for SIM out of 30 samples 22 (73.3%) samples had positive attitude before and in post test 29(96.6%) had positive attitude after administering SIM (Table 5 & 6).

Table 5: Grading of pre-test and post-test knowledge score of self instructional module.

Table 6: Grading of pre-test and post-test attitude score of video assisted teaching and self instructional module.

Nursing Implications

Nursing practice

The nursing personnel need to prepare instructional materials which should be simple, clear and understandable that can be studied at their own with other family members. Nursing personnel working in various units of hospitals will be able to find opportunities to teach and improve the knowledge regarding cervical cancer and its prevention.

Nursing education

The study has proved that improving the knowledge of married women brings about better awareness regarding prevention of cervical cancer. Nurses must be abreacting with new technologies, new approaches and techniques. Findings should be included in the nursing curriculum.

Nursing administration

Nursing administrators should take interest in motivating the nursing personnel to improve their professional knowledge and skill by attending hands on training to perform pap smears as a screening programme.

Nursing research

This study yield fruitful outcomes that are of great help in addressing arising problems. The nurse researcher may effectively use the result of these studies and develop clear knowledge on prevention of cervical cancer among married women by means of preventive and promotive aspects of cervical cancer.

Conclusion

Hence, this study proves that, comparatively the Video assisted teaching was much effective than the self instructional module on learning outcomes regarding prevention of cervical cancer among married women in rural areas of Kannur district.

References

1. Aswathy S, Quereshi MA, Kurian B, Leelamoni K (2012) Cervical cancer screening: Current knowledge & practice among women in a rural population of Kerala. Indian J Med Res 136(2): 205-210.
2. Harsha Kumar H, Tanya S (2014) A Study on Knowledge and Screening for cervical Cancer among Women in Mangalore City. Ann Med Health Sci Res 4(5): 751-756.
3. Suryapriya Balan Thovarayi (2013) Knowledge of cervical cancer screening among rural Indian women: a cross sectional study. IOSRJNHS.
4. Balaiah Donta, Begum S, Nair S, Naik DD, Mali BN, et al. (2011) Awareness of Cervical Cancer among Couples in a Slum Area of Mumbai. Asian Pac J cancer prevention 13(10): 4901-4903.
5. World health organization (2006) Cervical cancer screening programme managerial guidelines. Geneva, Switzerland.
6. Dutta DC (2008) Textbook of Gynaecology (5th edn), New central book agency, India.
7. Chintamani Lewis (2011) Medical surgical nursing. Reed Elsevier India private limited.
8. Anantharaman VV, S Sudharshini, A Chitra, (2013) A cross-sectional study on knowledge, attitude, and practice on cervical cancer and screening among female health care providers of Chennai Corporation. JAMS 2(4): 124-128.
9. Geetika Goel, Sumita Mehta, Shalini Rajaram, Neerja Goel (2013) Awareness about Human Papilloma Virus and its vaccine among medical students. Indian J community med 38(2): 92-94.
10. Siddharthar J, Rajkumar B, Deivasigamani K (2014) Knowledge, Awareness and Prevention of Cervical Cancer among Women Attending a Tertiary Care Hospital in Puducherry, India. J Clin Diagn Res 8(6): OC01-OC03.

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